Introduction
The purpose of phonological awareness instruction is to teach students the skills they need in order to understand the alphabetic system of English. Phonological awareness skills are a necessary component of beginning reading instruction and are the appropriate beginning point of instruction for many poor readers. Some students require instruction in analyzing sounds within words prior to beginning actual decoding and encoding instruction. Until a student understands that words can be broken into individual sounds and is able to perform tasks such as segmenting, blending and manipulating sounds within spoken words, the student will have difficulty learning how to use sounds and letters to read and spell words.
For REMEDIAL purposes, phonological awareness instruction should begin at the level indicated in the student’s individual assessment. For example, some students may need to practice segmenting words into syllables before they are ready to learn to segment words into phonemes. If you are working with a group, it will be best to begin instruction at the lowest level that will meet the needs of most of the students (even if this means reviewing skills for some students). If one or two students are significantly below the level of the others, it may be necessary to work with these students on more basic skills.
In this unit, you will be given information about the SEQUENCE in which to teach phonological awareness skills and will be taught some strategies which can be used with your students. Additional sources of information and teaching tools are presented in the Resources and References section.
Stages of Development and Sequence of Instruction
Phonological awareness skills typically develop slowly during preschool and kindergarten and are usually not fully developed until after students learn to read (during grades 1 and 2). There is a reciprocal relationship between phonological awareness skills and reading: i.e., students with higher levels of phonological awareness learn to read more easily and reading instruction enhances the further development of more sophisticated phonological awareness skills. PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS is an “umbrella” term which includes many different types and levels of skills.
Stages of Development
The typical STAGES of development of phonological awareness skills are listed below with examples of activities for each stage:
1. Sentences can be broken up into individual words. 
Sentence Segmentation
2. Rhyming words can be recognized and produced. Rhyming
3. Words can be broken into syllables. Syllable Segmentation
4. Words can be broken into onset and rime. Onset and rime
5. Beginning, ending and medial sounds of words can be identified. Phoneme Identification
6. Words can be segmented into individual sounds and sounds can be blended into words. Phoneme Segmentation and Blending
7. Individual sounds within words can be analyzed and manipulated. Phoneme Analysis
Within this developmental sequence, it must be recognized that these skills are all performed ORALLY. In addition, students typically are able to perform tasks of RECOGNITION before PRODUCTION. For example, it is usually easier to tell whether or not two words rhyme than to produce a rhyme for a given word. BLENDING is also usually easier than SEGMENTING. Notice that, at stage 5 of the above sequence, the student begins analyzing the individual sounds of words (phonemes); stages 5-7 are often referred to as Phonemic Awareness which is still under the “umbrella” of phonological awareness.
Sequence of Instruction
INSTRUCTION in phonological awareness should take the developmental sequence into account. Most programs designed for students in kindergarten begin with the most basic level and proceed forward. For older students, the process is not as straightforward since instruction must be tied to assessment. The goal of phonological awareness instruction is to prepare the student for decoding and encoding instruction. The following instructional sequence indicates the skills which should be taught (as necessary for individual students) PRIOR to, or along with, beginning decoding instruction. It is rarely necessary to start remedial instruction for older students below the syllable level and most older students begin with the phoneme level.
Syllable Level
1. Indicate the number of syllables in words.
2. Pronounce each syllable of words.
3. Begin with compound words and progress to multisyllable words.
Phoneme Level
1. Identify words as having same or different beginning, final, and medial sounds. (Phoneme Identification)
2. Blend sounds into words.
3. Segment words into sounds.
After the student can independently segment and blend words containing two and three sounds (e.g., at; mat), it is appropriate to begin formal instruction in decoding and encoding. The student will also need to have mastered a small set of letter-sound relationships (discussed in Unit 7). After decoding instruction has begun, phonemic awareness instruction should continue with the following sequence of skills. Note that these activities still involve the segmenting, blending and manipulating of sounds that were taught previously. Now, however, the sounds are mapped onto letters.
1. Use letters to build simple words.
2. Segment and blend sounds in increasingly more complex words.
3. Use letters to build more complex words. Examples
4. Use manipulatives to analyze and manipulate SOUNDS within words.
5. Use letters to analyze and manipulate sounds within words. Types of Analysis
6. Analyze words and syllables into onset and rime for reading and spelling.
7. Analyze words into syllables and segment the sounds within each syllable for reading and spelling.
Phonemic awareness instruction should be a part of decoding/encoding instruction until the student can read most words and syllables fluently. In Units 8 and 9, you will be given more information on strategies for teaching phonemic awareness using letters. The remainder of this unit focuses on teaching phonological awareness using sounds only.
General Principles of Phonemic Awareness Instruction
The following principles have been developed to guide teachers in the selection and implementation of effective instructional programs. General Principles:
- Instruction should be EXPLICIT with each skill taught directly.
- Teaching should involve MODELING more than explaining - show rather than tell.
- For students with very poor phonological awareness skills, begin instruction using SOUNDS ONLY. Initially use sounds that can be emphasized
easily without distortion (e.g., continuous sounds before stop sounds).
- Make instruction concrete by using MANIPULATIVES to represent parts of words; use DIFFERENT manipulatives for each unit of analysis (e.g., blocks for syllables; round discs for phonemes; square and rectangle for onset and rime).
- Teach skills in SEQUENCE from simpler to more complex.
- Teach correct PRONUNCIATION of sounds and monitor students’ sound production carefully (refer to Unit 4 for more information).
- Provide a great deal of GUIDED PRACTICE until students have mastered skills.
- Reinforce students’ ability to analyze sounds by teaching them to focus on the way sounds ‘feel’ as they are produced.
Teaching Students About Sounds
One very effective way to teach students about sounds is to help them discover the characteristics of sounds. Do not simply tell them about sounds, but guide the students in discovering the properties of each sound. In this video,
Teaching Motor Movements of Sounds, notice how the teacher guides the student to discover how the sounds of /h/ and /t/ are produced. After students are taught to "feel" different sounds, they can then be taught to use this information to identify sounds in different positions within words. For example, what is the last thing you FEEL your mouth doing in the word ‘flat?’ This information is presented as a supplement to the sound production section in Unit 4.
Here are some characteristics of selected consonant sounds that can be used to teach students.
/m/ lips come together - /m/ sound is like humming and can be stretched out without distortion. Cannot make /m/ while holding your nose because air comes out through the nose.
/n/ compare to /m/ - sound comes out nose also but tongue moves rather than lips. Cannot make while holding nose.
/p/ lips are closed and then pop open. Lots of air comes out which can be felt with hand in front of mouth. Voiceless sound - no use of voicebox.
/b/ lips are in same position as for /p/ but the voicebox is used. Cover ears and say both sounds - /b/ will be louder.
/t/ tongue touches back of teeth. Can feel air with hand in front of mouth.
Voiceless. Cannot make with lips closed.
/d/ same tongue movement as /t/ but is voiced. Cover ears and compare to /t/ to see which is louder.
/k/ tongue comes up in the back of the throat to stop the air and make the sound. Don’t use tip of tongue or lips for this sound.
/g/ same as /k/ but is voiced - you can feel your throat move
/f/ lower lip comes close to upper teeth and lots of air comes over your lip. This sound can be held without distortion.
/v/ same lip position as /f/ but is voiced.
/h/ a puff of air comes out when make /h/ - make the sound of o and feel for air - then add the /h/ in front of o /ho/ /ho/ /ho/ and feel the difference..
Teaching Syllable Segementation and Blending
Multisensory Instruction
The concept of segmenting spoken words into syllables is best introduced by making the segmentation concrete in some way. Most students do not have difficulty indicating the number of syllables by tapping or clapping once this is demonstrated. Moving objects to represent each syllable will help make the concept clear and provides the opportunity to practice pronouncing each syllable separately.
Syllable Segmentation Using Objects
In this video scene, the teacher is Introducing Syllable Segmentationto a small group of third graders. She demonstrates tapping each syllable on the table and then demonstrates moving blocks (cubes) for each syllable. Two syllable and then three syllable words are demonstrated.
Syllable Segmentation Using Pictures
In this scene, Syllable Segmentation With Cards, the students have learned to segment words into syllables and are playing a game to practice the skill. The teacher has selected a set of pictures of items with names containing 2, 3 and 4 syllables. Each student is handed a card and has to tap the number of syllables and then place the picture in the correct category.
Teaching Phoneme Segmentation & Blending
Multisensory Instruction:
Phoneme Segmentation Using Objects (“Say It and Move It”)
The concept of teaching phoneme segmentation and blending by using objects to represent sounds was first introduced by a Russian psychologist a number of years ago (Elkonin, 1973). Elkonin recommended providing students with a picture of a word and teaching the student to say each phoneme in the word while moving a counter to a series of boxes below the picture. For example, a picture of a cat would have three boxes to indicate three phoenemes. The student says the word ‘cat’ and then moves a counter to each of the boxes while saying the sounds in order /c/ /a/ /t/. Then the word is blended. A second step recommended by Elkonin is to color code the counters to indicate consonants and vowels. The final step is to add letters to the vowel counters.
A modification of the Elkonin procedure has been developed by Eileen Ball and Benita Blachman (1988, 1991) in which the pictures of items are eliminated and the student simply moves markers from the top of a page to a line at the bottom of the page. This activity has been called “Say it and move it” and is an important component of most phonemic awareness programs. It is a very effective method of teaching phoneme segmentation and blending and is strongly recommended as the starting point for students who need instruction at this level.
Initial Demonstration of "Say It and Move It"
1. Teacher explains to students that they are going to learn a way
to break words into sounds. Adjust the explanation to the
age of the students. For older students, use terms such as “analyze the
phonemes in words” or “segment words into sounds.”
2. Teacher models using objects (counters, discs) to represent each sound
in a word. Move the object from the top of the page (objects may be
placed in a circle or square which is sometimes called the “sound box”)
to the line at the bottom of the page (sometimes called the “sound line”).
3. After each sound is represented with a counter, blend the sounds and sweep the hand under the line. Start with words of two sounds.
4. Teacher and students practice several items with the students. This demonstration can be done with groups using an overhead or magnetic board but you must monitor students’ performance
Watch a teacher introducing a lesson using the Say It and Move It Strategy (Ball and Blachman, 1988, 1991)
Procedures for Guided Practice of “Say It and Move It”
1. Give each student a set of materials (individual sheet with “sound box”
and “sound line” and markers). Note: if needed, students can be given extra cues by providing a sheet with boxes at the bottom indicating the number of sounds to be segmented. This cue should be eliminated as students progress.
2. Say the word to be segmented and monitor to be sure students REPEAT.
3. Teacher and students together SAY EACH SOUND and MOVE the counters to the line or boxes below. Monitor students closely.
4. Teacher and students BLEND the sounds and slide the hand under the counters.
5. Practice using many examples until each student can independently segment words into two to five sounds (e.g., ap; tap; stop; stomp). Practice is best done for a short period daily.
6. Correct errors by modeling the procedure for the student individually and ask them to repeat the same procedure. If this is not sufficient, perform the movements with the student. Place your hand on the student’s hand and move the markers together while saying the sounds.
Now, view the next two video scenes which illustrate the use of the “Say it and move it” strategy to segment words of two and three sounds into individual phonemes.
Phoneme Segmentation: Two Sounds
Phoneme Segmentation: Three Sounds
Manipulating Sounds Within Words Using Objects
The activity shown here, Phoneme Segmentation Using Cubes,involves an extension of the “say it and move it procedure” and is to be used after the students demonstrate mastery of segmenting spoken words into sounds. Objects (colored blocks, discs) are used to represent individual sounds and students are taught to demonstrate changes in spoken words by moving the objects. This activity does not require any reading skills and is done without referring to the letters by name. The change demonstrated involves adding a sound (/i/ to /it/). Notice the cue the teacher gives the student; ie., she points to the place for the block representing /t/.
In this video Changing Words Using Cubes, you will see a teacher introducing the concept of manipulating sounds to an individual student who is having difficulty in this area. The teacher uses colored blocks and gives the student a number of cues to help understand manipulations involving substituting sounds. The change demonstrated is /sit/ to /sat/.
Representing Sounds with Fingers
Another multisensory strategy is to teach students to represent individual sounds using their fingers. For example, students may be taught to say each sound as a finger is tapped on the thumb ( “sound tapping” is a strategy used in the Wilson Reading System) or to raise a finger for each sound in a word (“spelling the sounds” is a strategy used in the Language! curriculum).
An example of “sound tapping” of the word ‘map’:
say /m/ and tap index finger to thumb
say /a/ and tap middle finger to thumb
say /p/ and tap ring finger to thumb
Blend sounds into /map/ by dragging thumb across the fingers, beginning with the index finger (representing the /m/ sound). Blending can also be done by moving the fist from left to right while saying the word.
To “spell the sounds” the student would be shown how to raise a finger for each sound in a word, as follows:
For the word ‘map’ the student used the left hand, palms inward and raises the thumb while saying /m/, raises the index finger while saying /a/ and raises the ring finger while saying /p/. The fist is moved from left to right while blending the sounds into the word /map/.
Teaching Onset-Rime Segmentation & Blending
After students are able to segment words into individual phonemes, it is useful to teach them another way of dividing words into parts. One advantage of onset-rime is that each word (or syllable) can be divided into only two parts. This is important for students who have difficulty holding information in working memory. An understanding of onset-rime also prepares the student for reading and spelling using information about word families and spelling patterns.
Definition
Segmenting words into Onset and Rime involves dividing a single syllable word into the onset - beginning consonant or consonants- and the rime - vowel and ending consonant or consonants.
Examples of Onset-Rime
FAT would be segmented into /f/ /at/
SHOP would be segmented into /sh/ /op/
THINK would be segmented into /th/ /ink/
Teaching Strategy
MODEL the segmentation of words into onset and rime for the student, using concrete objects to represent each segment of the word. This can be referred to as “say it and move it” with younger children or as “word analysis” for older students. For younger children, use of blocks to represent the segments is appropriate. For older students, use pieces of cardboard. To emphasize the difference between the onset and rime, use different shapes (square for onset and rectangle for rime) and, for younger students, it may help to color code the objects.
Teaching Procedures
The teacher demonstrates segmenting a SPOKEN word into onset and rime while moving the objects. Single syllable words should be used and nonsense words or syllables (such as ‘sath’) can be used with older students. Start with words (or syllables) with single consonants at beginning and end (CVC words such as bit) and proceed to words with consonant digraphs (sh, th, ch, wh) and blends.
The student repeats the item that the teacher has demonstrated. For some students, it may be necessary to (do items with them) several times before they can imitate or do the segmenting independently. For example: say the word, pronounce the onset for the student, the student repeats, and then the teacher and student together say the onset and move the object. Repeat the procedure for the rime. Practice until the student can do INDEPENDENTLY.
This video scene, Teaching an Onset-Rime Lesson, shows a teacher using manipulatives to teach the concept of onset and rime to a group of middle school students.
